Criminal Justice: Exam Two
Summary: 24 Multiple Choice, 10 Fill in the Blank, 8 True/False.
On the subjects of correlates of crime, stages of justice,
policing, and the guest speaker Captain Griffins’ talk.
Age-Crime Relationship: The
Debate
A.
Age-crime ratio has
extremely long correlation
B.
Most crime committed ages
15-24
a.
Peaks at 19
C.
Found universally
D.
Latent Trait Approach
a.
Age has a DIRECT effect on
crime
b.
No factor (or combination
of factors) can explain the age-crime relationship
c.
ONLY age effects the
relationship
E.
Gottfredson and Hirschi's
Self Control Theory/Latent Trait Approach
a.
Opportunity and
self-control are the factors of a crime
i.
Opportunity: The condition
under which low self-control leads to crime
ii.
Self-control: The tendency of
individuals to consider the long term consequences of their actions
iii.
Focus placed on early
childhood socialization
iv.
Individuals do not change,
opportunity to commit crimes decreases with age
v.
Six Components of Low Self
Control
1.
Tendency to respond to
tangible stimuli
2.
Tendency to lack diligence,
tenacity or persistence in a course of action
3.
Tendency to be adventurous
rather than cautious
4.
Embraces a preference of
physical rather than cognitive activities
5.
Tendency toward
self-centeredness, indifferent or insensitive toward others
6.
Minimal tolerance for
frustration and an inability to respond verbally to conflict
F.
Life Course Perspective-
Warr, Laub and Sampson
a.
Contradicts latent trait
perspective
b.
Age distribution of crime
is not invariant
i.
Age-crime curve is not the
same in every time/place
c.
Age has an indirect effect
on crime
d.
Age is correlated w/
important events or factors which are highly related to crime
i.
Employment, ties,
relationships, etc.
ii.
Age at which events occur
can define when one gets involved in crime
e.
Onset- Age of first offense
f.
Frequency- Amount of
offending for any age group; how many crimes engaged in during each age period
g.
Desistance- Age when
individual stops offending
h.
People and events change
over life course
i.
Transitions- life events;
often modifies trajectory
ii.
Turning points- changes in
the life course
iii.
Trajectories-pathway of
development, how life forms and what is to come in the future
i.
Context of behavior over
time; how life course forms and impacts individual
i.
Qualitative- quality of
experiences individual has
ii.
Quantitative- Quantity of
experiences individual has
j.
Age at which events in life
occur influence whether or not people will be criminals
G.
Latent vs. Life Course
a.
Life course contradicts
latent trait approach
b.
Whether or not propensity
is set early
i.
Looks at developmental
process
ii.
Set early in latent/self
control theories vs. inapplicable in life course
iii.
In latent- what happens
later in life doesn't matter
iv.
In life course- later life
transitions/processes are important
c.
Whether or not age has a direct
influence on crime
i.
Latent- age is the ONLY
element explaining the age-crime curve
ii.
Life course- life
transitions/what occurs at points in life explains age-crime curve; indirect
impact
H.
STUDIES on Latent vs. Life
Course
a.
Warr: Age, Peers and
Delinquency
i.
Supports life course
perspective
ii.
Peer associations effect
crime, the peers one associates with has to do with age
iii.
Peers are strongest
predictors of crime
iv.
Age differences in
1.
Exposure to delinquent
peers
2.
Time spent with peers
3.
Importance of delinquent
peers
4.
Loyalty to peers
v.
AGE DOESN'T MATTER, PEERS
DO
b.
Laub and Sampson: Life
Course Study of Criminal Offending
i.
Can a person become
criminal in adulthood?
1.
Argument: YES
ii.
Quality of social bonds
influence social control which explains criminal behavior
iii.
Social capital: resources
gained through quality social relationships
iv.
Most comprehensive study-
boys entire lives and their relationships
v.
Looks at Adult Social
Capital: attachment to labor force and a cohesive marriage
1.
Turning points
a.
Positive: meaningful work,
etc.
b.
Negative: Heavy drinking,
job instability, etc.
vi.
Findings: Adult social
capita DOES MATTER
c.
Life Course Summary
i.
Age matters, but other
factors associated with age are also relevant
ii.
People change over life
course
d.
Latent approach Summary
i.
Age is the only factor
ii.
Self-control theory
STAGES OF JUSTICE
A.
STAGE ONE: Police
a.
Initial contact
i.
Proactive vs. retroactive
b.
Investigation
c.
Arrest
i.
Probable cause has been
established
ii.
Police officer deprives
person of freedom
iii.
Suspect understands he/she
is not free to leave
d.
Custody
i.
Mug shot, fingerprinting,
placed in jail, etc.
B.
STAGE TWO: Courts
a.
Charges
i.
Complaint filed in
misdemeanor cases
ii.
Information or indictment
is filed in felony cases
iii.
Prosecutor decides if
individual will be charged
1.
50% of the time, no charges
b.
First Appearance
i.
Person is informed of
charges, reminded of rights and bail is considered
c.
Preliminary Hearing/Grand
Jury
i.
Determines if there is
probable cause
1.
Grand jury for indictment
2.
Judge in other cases
ii.
Become formally charged in preliminary
hearing upholds probable cause
iii.
Usually waived- 'go ahead
and charge me'
1.
Defendant must waive it
d.
Arraignment
i.
Defendant is informed of
charges by a judge, responds to charges, informed of constitutional right,
trial date is set
- Defendant must respond to each
charge
a.
Guilty, not guilty, no
contest
b.
Plea bargaining
- Bail determined
e.
Trial/Adjudication
i.
When plead non-guilty
ii.
Formal processing
f.
Disposition/Diversion
i.
Dispose of the case
ii.
Handled outside of CJ
system
C.
STAGE THREE: Corrections
a.
Treatment
b.
Release
i.
85% of sentenced leave
prison when sentence is over
c.
Post-Release
i.
Transition back into
society after incarceration
d.
US has highest rate of
incarceration
e.
Minimum, medium and maximum
security prisons
POLICING AND LAW
ENFORCEMENT
A.
Officers are most common
B.
Functions
a.
Law Enforcement/
Investigation
i.
Identify criminal suspects
ii.
Investigate crimes
iii.
Apprehend offenders/arrest
iv.
Participate in trials
b.
Patrol
i.
Non-crime calls for service
ii.
Attendance at public
gatherings
iii.
Traffic direction and
control
iv.
Majority of calls to police
department
v.
Ex: Keys locked in car,
friend lost, etc, etc.
c.
Order Maintenance/Peace
Keeping
i.
Presence of officer brings
order
ii.
Maintain a sense of
community
iii.
Community services
1.
Dealing w/ vandalism,
graffiti in public places, prostitutes, etc…
d.
Crime Control/Prevention
i.
Resolve conflict/disputes
ii.
Aid individuals in danger
iii.
Helping persons in need of
assistance
iv.
Loud music, loitering,
fights, etc.
C.
Police Selection Process
a.
Merit System- Officers
under a system hired and tenured if they meet and maintain the employment
qualifications and performance standard
i.
Cannot be fired without
cause
b.
Included Steps
i.
Short application
ii.
Detailed application
iii.
Medical examination
iv.
Physical agility test
v.
Written examination
vi.
Background investigation
vii.
Psychological Testing
viii.
Oral Interview
ix.
Academy Training
x.
Probation (6 mo-1 yr)
1.
Includes formal field
training
2.
Act as officer w/ older
patrol officer
D.
Duties
a.
Law Enforcement/
Investigation
i.
Detective
1.
No uniforms
2.
Anonymity during work hours
3.
Steady work hours
4.
Activities/Duties
a.
Incident report/Preliminary
Investigation
b.
Evidence collection and
processing
c.
Screening and case
assignment
d.
Follow-up Investigation
e.
Clearance and arrest
f.
File Maintenance
g.
Desk work
b.
Patrol
i.
Get most personnel and
resources
ii.
Backbone of department
iii.
Functions/duties
1.
Responding to alarms
2.
Investigating accidents
3.
Caring for injured
4.
Resolving disputes
5.
Responding to calls
6.
Non-crime classified calls
7.
Attendance at public
gatherings
8.
Community services
9.
Preliminary investigations
10.
Arrests
11.
Traffic direction/control
12.
Court Testimony
c.
Order Maintenance/Peace
Keeping
d.
Crime Control/Prevention
E.
Issues that impact the
police
a.
Making an arrest
i.
58% of felonies result in
arrest
ii.
44% of misdemeanors result
in arrest
iii.
Discretion: The use of
personal decision making and choice in carrying out operations of the criminal
justice system
b.
Abuse of force
i.
Police Corruption: the
abuse of police authority for personal gain or to gain advantage for the police
organization
ii.
Deadly Force: The ability
of the police to kill suspects if they resist arrest or present a danger to an
officer or the community
iii.
Abuse of Force: Involves
such actions as use of abusive language, unnecessary use of force or coercion,
threats, stopping and searching
c.
Technology
d.
Community Policing
F.
Factors that Influence
Arrest
a.
Mobilization
i.
How they come into contact
with the citizen
1.
Reactive or proactive
a.
Mostly reactive
2.
Complaints requests
3.
Direct contact w/
individual (seen on duty)= less likely to arrest
b.
Evidence
i.
4th amendment requires
probable cause to arrest
1.
Police officer must possess
enough facts and circumstance that would lead an officer to believe person has
committed a crime
ii.
Misdemeanors vs. Felonies
1.
Misdemeanor
a.
Police witness of offense
(direct information)
b.
Written testimony/
Statement
2.
Felony Offense
a.
Probable cause/reasonable
grounds
c.
Seriousness of offense
i.
More serious offense=more
arrests
- Felony vs. misdemeanor
- Violent crimes
- Presence of weapon
d.
Intimacy
i.
Social distance between
victim and offender
ii.
Strangers, no prior
contact, arrested more often
e.
Disrespect
i.
Confrontational attitude
ii.
Threats to officer's
authority/control
f.
Discrimination
i.
Account race/gender/age
ii.
NOT a stereotype
g.
Discretion
i.
Use of personal decisions
of officers on making arrests
G.
Discretion
a.
The use of personal
decision making and choice when carrying out the operations of criminal justice
system
b.
Not everyone who breaks the
law is arrested
c.
Necessary discretion: No
discretion would lead to overload of the system
d.
Sources of discretion
i.
Environment
1.
Community's race and
economic make-up
2.
Officer's perception of
community
ii.
Departmental
Characteristics
1.
Size of department
2.
Operating style
3.
Judgment of police chief
4.
Structure and clarity in
policies
5.
Ratio of supervisors to
subordinates
iii.
Peer influence
1.
Informal police culture
2.
Reaction to emotional
demands, working conditions and peer pressure
iv.
Situational Factors
1.
Attitude, appearance,
demeanor of suspect
2.
Touching or struggling w/
officer
3.
Time length of interaction
a.
Longer contact w/ citizen,
more discretion used
H.
Police Misconduct,
Corruption and Use of Force
a.
Police Corruption
i.
Why policing is susceptible
to corruption
1.
Police have authority
2.
Police discretion to not
enforce the law
3.
Relatively low pay but
important responsibilities
4.
Cynicism
5.
Societies ambivalance to
crime
ii.
Types of corruption
1.
Knapp Commission (study)
a.
Grass Eaters- engage in
corruption in occasional/small ways
i.
Ex: accepting small favors
for ignoring violations
b.
Meat Eaters- Officers who
actively seek ways to make money illegally while on duty
i.
MUCH smaller group
ii.
Regular basis
2.
Stoddard list of misconduct
a.
Bribery: accepting cash or
gifts in exchange for non-enforcement of the law
b.
Chiseling: demanding
discounts, free admission, free food b/c of position
c.
Extortion: The threat of
enforcement and arrest if a bribe isn't given
d.
Favoritism: Giving breaks
on law enforcement to family/friends
e.
Mooching: Accepting free
food, drinks and admission to entertainment
f.
Prejudice: Unequal
enforcement of law with respect to racial and ethnic minorities
g.
Premeditated theft: Planned
burglaries and theft
h.
Shakedown: Taking items
from the scene of a theft or burglary
i.
Shopping: Taking small,
inexpensive items from a crime scene
iii.
Controlling Corruption
1.
High moral standards
2.
Police policies and
discipline
3.
Proactive internal affairs
investigations unit
4.
Uniform enforcement of law
5.
Outside review and special
prosecutors
6.
Court review and oversight
b.
Police Use of Force
i.
Firm Grip, Compliance hold,
batons, nightsticks, pushing, shoving, kicking, punching, swarming, sprays, chemicals,
Tasers, choke holds, shooting
ii.
Use of force IS NOT AN
ISSUE, misuse of force IS
1.
Level of force unnecessary
given the situation
iii.
Usually NO FORCE is used in
interactions
iv.
Use of force is a continuum
v.
Force is justified to
protect him or herself from physical attack or to subdue a suspect resisting
attack
c.
BJs 1999 Report
i.
Very few officers used
force or threatened to use force, and even fewer are unjustified
ii.
Usually only low force is
used
1.
Ex: Grabbing, pushing,
shoving
iii.
Small proportion of officers
are disproportionately involved in use of force incidents
iv.
Use of force is unrelated
to an officer's personal characteristics such as age, gender and ethnicity
v.
Typically occurs when
police are trying to make an arrest and suspect is resisting
d.
Factors Influencing Abuse
of Force
i.
Jurisdiction
1.
Where officer is assigned
2.
Cities vs. rural areas;
economic population characteristics; level of violence in the area
ii.
Police Workload
1.
Ratio of number of
calls/arrests to officers
2.
Police stress
3.
Higher stress=higher force
iii.
Firearm availability
1.
Area w/ more firearms,
higher use of force
2.
Greater number of crimes
committed w/ firearms, higher police violence
3.
Gun density (proportion of
suicides and murders with guns to those without)
iv.
Social Variables
1.
Instability in population
v.
Administrative
Policies/Department
1.
Restrictive vs.
non-restrictive policies
a.
Restrictive means LESS USE
OF FORCE
2.
Poorly written/ambivalent
policies cause tension and stress and thus higher use of force
vi.
Race of Offender
1.
Racial disparities in use of
deadly/excessive force
2.
Less prominent then in the
past, but still significant
e.
Controlling Misuse of Force
i.
Supreme Court
1.
Changes policies
2.
Tennessee v. Garner case
a.
Fleeing suspected felon
cannot be shot
3.
Defense of Life Rule- Use of
deadly force ONLY where suspect presents a clear danger to officer or public
4.
Graham vs. Connor
a.
Reasonable standard-
Officer must be objective looking at situation on their use of force
5.
Reasonable Standard
a.
Severity of crime
b.
Did suspect present
immediate threat
c.
Is suspect actively
resisting arrest or attempting to escape
ii.
Training and Statutes
1.
States have statutory
policies
2.
Training centers- proper
methods and demos for force
iii.
Internal/External Review
Boards
1.
Increases accountability
2.
Accountability via public
review boards
3.
Investigations by police
administrators
iv.
Availability of Nonlethal
Weapons
1.
Helps w/ deadly force
v.
Diversifying Police
Departments
1.
Educated officers
2.
Training- empathy,
bilingual, etc.
I.
Technological Advancements
and Community Policing
a.
Technology
i.
Computer aided dispatch
programs
1.
Police dispatcher assisted
by computer
2.
Establishes priorities for
calls
3.
Assists dispatcher w/
details (ex: streets, caller)
ii.
Automatic Vehicle Locators
(AVL) Devices
1.
Used to locate cars of
undercover cops
iii.
Laptop computer, radio
devices, finger-printing devices in patrol cars
1.
Online search and match
capabilities
iv.
License plate scanners
v.
Advantages
1.
Efficiency
2.
Safer
3.
Higher clearance rate
vi.
Disadvantages
1.
Training needed
2.
Cost of products
3.
Fewer officers necessary
4.
Systems already in place
a.
Dislike of change
5.
Lack of education of
computers
6.
Creates dissension b/c only
SOME officers get it
7.
Less traditional policing
8.
Computer errors
J.
Community Policing
a.
Definition: A policing
strategy and philosophy based on the notion that community interaction and
support can help control crime and reduce fear, with community members helping
to identify suspects, detain vandals and bring problems to the attention of the
police
b.
Components
i.
Proactive problem solving
that goes beyond law enforcement/arrest to include fear and social disorders
ii.
Community participation in
assessing arrest, fear and social disorders
iii.
Community actively involved
with problems in the community
c.
Differences from
Traditional Policing
i.
More contact b/w police and
community members
1.
Friendlier contact
ii.
Expands duties/definition
of police work
iii.
Proactive rather than
retroactive
iv.
Decentralizes police
department
1.
Personalizes officers
2.
Asks officers to become a
part of the community they work in
v.
Emphasizes community
involvement via organizations, surveys and joint-agencies
d.
Types
i.
Problem-Oriented Policing
1.
Broken Windows Model
2.
Small crimes allow room for
large crime, and thus if small crimes are cracked, bigger crimes would drop as
well
ii.
S.A.R.A
1.
Scanning- identifying
problems
2.
Analysis- understanding
underlying problems
3.
Response- Developing and
implementing solutions
4.
Assessment- determining the
solutions' effects
5.
NOT NECESSARILY IN THIS
ORDER
e.
Advantages
i.
Increased movement of
officer
1.
Officer freed from patrol
car
2.
Expanded duties
ii.
Allows officer to spend
more time on crime prevention
iii.
Increases positive public
perceptions of policing
iv.
Decentralizes police
operations
1.
Puts power in hands of the
individual officers
2.
Answer to the community
f.
Disadvantages
i.
Lack of clarity in duties
and responsibilities
ii.
Lack of support from public
iii.
Lack of cooperation from
public
iv.
Reduction in fear of crime,
but no evidence of reduction in crime rates
v.
Police department
implementation
1.
Will take time
CAPTAIN GRIFFIN TALK
A.
Police process is VERY
selective
B.
Police academy
a.
Live-in in Delaware
b.
No outside contact
c.
Grueling experience
d.
Inspection
C.
Many fewer females in
police force
D.
Physical fitness necessity
E.
Different agencies and
their specialties
F.
Must be able to talk to
people and treat them with respect
G.
Technology and changes of…
a.
If you carry a Taser,
you've been Tased
H.
Police is EXTREMELY
selective, only the best, mistakes cause firing
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