November 18, 2013

Animal Science Exam #3 Study Guide

  1. LACTATION
    1. Colostrum- First secretion; very high in protein; contains antibodies
    2. Milk
    3. Prolactin- ANTERIOR pituitary gland; Hormone which leads to milk production
    4. Oxytocin- POSTERIOR pituitary gland;  causes letdown
    5. Lactogenesis Stage I- Formation of colostrum
    6. Lactogenesis Stage II- Regular milk production
    7. Alveoli- Primary cell structures of mammary glands; transform nutrients from blood to milk
    8. Milk Composition- Carbohydrates; Lipids (variable by species); Proteins; Calcium
    9. Letdown- Milk release; can be conditioned; CNS stimulus; milk pushed out from contraction of secretory/alveolar cells
    10. Milk Fever- Calcium necessary to make milk exceeds calcium intake; causes weakness in cows
    11. BST- Protein growth hormone which causes increased milk production
    12. Mastitis- Bacterial inflammation of mammary gland
    13. Lactation Curve- Milk production peaks rapidly, declines slowly
    14. Involution- Return of the mammary gland to pre-lactation form
  2. Marketing
    1. Vertical Integration-the control of two adjacent stages in the vertical marketing channel from producers to consumers
    2. Contract Integration- When adjacent stages contract w/ each other for resources
    3. Ownership Integration- Firms OWN the other resource stages
    4. Fresh-packaged Product- traditional product
    5. Value-Packaged Product- slightly improved product
    6. Differentiated Product- improved, also has a brand name
  3. Poultry
    1. Broilers- 7 weeks for market; meat chicken;  highly integrated
    2. Layers- 255 eggs/yr; egg laying
    3. Turkeys
    4. Class- From same geographic area
    5. Breed- specific type of physical feature
    6. Variety- subdivisions of breeds
    7. Strain- family/breeding population
    8. Nutrition- rapid digestion; high efficiency
    9. Biosecurity- don't spread poultry
  4. Animal Health
    1. Disease- disorder of function that produces symptoms; changes normal functions
    2. Etiology- cause of disease
    3. Symptom- observable difference caused by disease
    4. Lesion- change in body function
    5. Vector- organism that transmits a disease
    6. Reservoir- Place where disease lives comfortably and spreads itself; slowly effects the host
    7. Zooinosis- diseases that can impact both humans and animals
    8. Direct Cause
      1. Infectious- Caused by living agents
      2. Pathogens- living organism; cause damage to other organisms
      3. Pathogenicity- measure of an organism's ability to cause disease
      4. Virulence- How bad the disease gets
      5. Contagion
      6. Non-Infectious
    9. Describing Disease
      1. Clinical- observable symptoms
      2. Sub-Clinical- disease present, but symptoms barely observable
      3. Acute- either get better or DIE
      4. Chronic
    10. Defense
      1. Antigen- Foreign substance that causes immune response in body
      2. Antibodies- recognize infectious agents
      3. Active Immunity- Host actively participates; long lasting
      4. Passive Immunity- Ex: Gaining antibodies through colostrum; short lasting
    11. All-in/all-out theory- all animals of an age born/live/leave together so they have an ecosystem of disease; no foreign disease
  5. Animal Behavior
    1. Ethology- Study of animal behavior
    2. Critical Periods- Periods of development when characteristics/skills readily acquired
    3. Classical Learning- Two stimuli paired; learned that they go together
    4. Habituation- Learning to ignore stimuli that produces no effect
    5. Operant Conditioning- Positive/negative reinforcement
    6. Imprint Learning
    7. Animal Communication
      1. Flehman Response: Male ruminant lip curl in response to ovulation of female
    8. Social Structure
    9. Aggression
    10. Livestock Behavior
      1. Temperament: Fearful; Flight zone; No novelty
      2. Vision: wide angle; see rapid movement; little depth perception
      3. Hearing: sensitive
      4. Herd behavior
    11. Maternal Behavior
      1. Pigs: nestbuilding; fights for teats
      2. Sheep: Licking behavior; recognition; following
      3. Cow: Grooming and bonding; licking; calves hide
      4. Horses: thwart observation of calving; foal vocalization
    12. Handling Practices
  6. Beef Cattle
    1. Stages
      1. Cow-Calf: (up to 6-10 months); weaning
      2. Stocker: (up to 12-20 months); grazing; skeletal growth
      3. Feedlot: (16-30 months); grains; fattening up to be eaten
    2. Breeding/Seedstock: Purebred seedstock; specialized; breeding value
    3. British: Smaller; marbling ; mature quickly
    4. Continental: Larger; higher yield; mature slower; lower quality
    5. Zebu and Composites: heat and insect resistant; uncommon in US
    6. Nutrition: Ruminant; maximize use of forages
    7. Health
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November 17, 2013

Beef Cattle

  1. The Industry
    1. Largest money-generating commodity
    2. Purpose
      1.  Make use of resources
      2. Greatest economic gain
    3. Structure
      1. Animals change ownership when moving between phases
    4. Stages
      1. Cow-Calf
        1. Grade or crossbred cows
        2. Produces calves 6-10 mo.s of age to be sold
          1. Age depends on maturation rate of cattle breed
        3. Calves sold at weaning or retained on pasture
          1. When winter feed has been saved up
          2. Price of weaned calves is low
        4. Most ranches have fewer than 100 cows
        5. Goal=produce heaviest calves w/ least cost
      2. Stocker
        1. Produces feeder steers and heifers
        2. 12-20 months
        3. Limited amount of grain fed
        4. Grazing
        5. Growth program aimed at skeletal growth
      3. Feedlot
        1. Produces slaughter steers and heifers
        2. 16-30 months
        3. Ration is high in energy- additional fat
          1. More grain
        4. Endpoint is a quality carcass
      4. Breeding/ Seedstock
        1. Purebred seedstock production
          1. Cows and bulls both purebred
          2. Specialized
          3. Bulls are grown and evaluated
          4. Selling "breeding value"
        2. Breeding Herd
          1. 1 calf/cow/year
          2. 100% calf crop
            1.  (# calves weaned/# cows exposed to bull)
          3. Calve in season
          4. Heifers calve at age 2
        3. Crossbred cows are better
          1. Heterosis
  2. Breed Groups
    1. British
      1. Mature and fatten early
      2. Smaller at maturation
      3. Ex: Angus
    2. Continental
      1. Later maturing
      2. Larger at maturity
      3. Less marbling
      4. Higher yield
    3. Zebu and Composites
      1. Temperature and insect resistant
      2. Composite Breeds- new breeds created by mixes
  3. Nutrition
    1. Ruminants
      1. Maximize use of forages
  4. Beef Cattle Health
    1. Challenges
      1. Adequate Nutrition
      2. Good Sanitation
      3. Vaccinations
      4. Parasite control
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Animal Behavior

  1. Ethology- The science of animal behavior
  2. Terminology
    1. Critical Periods- period of development in which a skill or characteristic can be readily acquired
    2. Learning/conditioning
      1. Classical- Two stimuli are repeatedly paired, learned that they come together
      2. Habituation- Learning to ignore a stimulus that doesn't affect an animal
      3. Operant- learning through trial-and-error; positive/negative reinforcement
    3. Imprint learning- happens at specific times in development
      1. Cross-imprinting is negative
    4. Stereotyped behavior- non-functional, repetitive behavior
      1. Ex: Pacing
  3. Animal Communication
    1. Visual
      1. Ex: Ears, Tails, etc.
    2. Olfactory
      1. Ex: Sexual activity, Identification
        1. Flehmen response (in male ruminants)- curling back of upper lip and inhalation through nostrils; sense when female is in heat
    3. Auditory
      1. Different meanings of different calls/sounds
  4. Social Structure
    1. Cattle
      1. Bunt/hook order
        1. Height, weight, horns, age, sex
    2. Piglets
      1. Teat order
      2. Heaviest; Firstborn
    3. Sheep
      1. Leadership/flocking
  5. Aggression
    1. Territorial
    2. Pain-induced
    3. Fear-induced
    4. Maternal
    5. Sexual
      1. Ex: stallions defend mares, champing in boars, etc.
  6. Biological Rhythms and Sleep
    1. Amount of sleep varies by species
      1. Pigs rest a lot, horses rest very little
  7. Sexual Behavior
    1. Estrus behavior in females
    2. Male courtship behavior
  8. Maternal Behavior
    1. Pigs
      1. Nestbuilding
      2. Very little licking of piglets
      3. Nursing Call
      4. Many nursing bouts
      5. Fights for teats
    2. Sheep
      1. Amniotic fluid attraction
      2. Licking is important
      3. Acceptance of lambs
      4. Recognition
      5. Lambs are followers
    3. Cattle
      1. Amniotic fluid attraction
      2. Grooming and bonding
      3. Vocalizations
      4. Nursing stance
      5. Calves are hiders
    4. Horses
      1. Thwart observation of foaling- can hold off from giving birth until in privacy
      2. Some initial licking
      3. Mare uses vocal/olfactory cues to recognize young
      4. Foal vocalizes to nurse
  9. Livestock Behavior
    1. Temperament
      1. Genetics and environment
        1. Fearful
        2. Flight zone
        3. Fearful of new situations
          1. Effects of novelty: stress, reactions, habituation occurs after awhile
    2. Vision
      1. Wide angle of vision
      2. Detection of sudden movement
      3. Depth perception has difficulty w/ changes in flooring
        1. See shadows as solid things
      4. Color vision- dichromatic
        1. Blue-green and yellow-green
    3. Hearing
      1. Sensitivity to high frequency
      2. Unexpected noises are stressors
      3. Adaptation to continuous noise
        1. Avoid loud/novel noises
    4. Flight Zone
      1. Personal space
      2. Size
        1. Depends on tameness, size of enclosure, speed of approach, experience
      3. Used to move/handle animals
    5. Herd Animals
      1. Stressed when separated
      2. Agitation of herd can cause injuries
      3. Use knowledge of herd-instinct to move the entire herd (follow-the-leader)
  10. Handling Facility Design
    1. Utilize behavioral principles
    2. Curved edges
      1. Circling tendencies
      2. Can't see
    3. Light
  11. Handling Practices
    1. Move small bunches
    2. No electric prods
    3. Eliminate visual distractions
    4. Reduce noise
    5. Flight zone manipulation
    6. Slow pace
    7. Use following behavior in herd animals
    8. Train the handlers to be knowledgeable 
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Animal Health

  1. Terminology
    1. Disease- disorder of structure or function that produces specific signs/symptoms; changes normal function
    2. Etiology- cause of disease
    3. Symptom- Observable difference from normal caused by disease
    4. Lesion- Change in a body organ (disease or injury cause)
    5. Vector- Organism that transmits a disease (ex: mosquito)
    6. Reservoir- Place where disease agent can retreat and live comfortably; slowly infects the host while spreading the disease
    7. Zooinosis- disease that humans and animals share
  2. Causes of disease
    1. Predisposing causes
      1. Ex: stress
    2. Direct causes
      1. Infectious- caused by living agents (viruses/bacteria)
        1. Pathogens (bacteria, viruses, protozoa)- living organism that causes disease in another organism
        2. Pathogenicity- Measure of an organism's ability to cause disease
        3. Virulence- How bad the disease gets, degree of pathogenicity
        4. Contagious
      2. Non-infectious
        1. Genetic
        2. Nutrition- ex: anemia, toxicities
        3. Metabolic- animals fail to metabolize correctly
        4. Trauma/injury
        5. Chemicals/toxins- ex: consumption of fertilizer
        6. Physical- exposure to radiation
    3. Describing Disease
      1. Clinical- observable symptoms
      2. Sub-clinical- few to no observable symptoms, but infectious agent is present and being spread from the animal
      3. Acute- VERY noticeable symptoms, either death or recovery
      4. Chronic- disease develops slowly, hangs around, non-specific symptoms
    4. Diagnosing Disease
      1. Detection and ID
      2. History
      3. Observation
      4. Physical exam
      5. Collection tissues/fluids
    5. Defense Against Disease Terminology
      1. Antigen- a toxin or foreign substance that induces an immune response in the body
      2. Non-specific/innate immunity
        1. Protects against whole classes of disease organisms
        2. Barriers- ex: skin, hair, etc.
          1. Normal gut flora- microorganisms in gut which protect us
          2. Mucociliary escalator- respiratory tract in the nose which keeps out bad stuff; cilia
      3. Specific Immunity (acquired)
        1. Pathogen specific (response to specific virus, bacteria, etc.)
        2. Memory cells/ ANTIBODIES- when infected w/ virus, body creates these cells, remember the bad agent
        3. Recognition of foreign antigen and destroy them
        4. Immunization
        5. Antibodies- cells that recognize infectious agents
          1. Acquired passively from mother to offspring (short lasting)
          2. Acquired actively, after exposure to infectious agent- immunization or after animal has the disease (long lasting)
        6. Active Immunity
          1. Host actively participates
          2. Primary immune response- first exposure to an antigen
          3. Secondary immune response- next exposure to infection; more vigorous/rapid response to antigen; basis of vaccine; due to memory cells
    6. Herd Health
      1. Management- make separate parts of herd health program work
      2. Nutrition- correctly balance rations; keep animals from being over or underfed; prevent nutrition/metabolic disease
      3. Genetics- eliminate genetic disease
    7. Prevention
      1. Consult veterinarian
      2. Have procedures
      3. Identify animals w/ disease
      4. Add healthy animals
      5. Maintain animal groups
      6. All-in, all-out
        1. All in/ all out- all animals born together, grow up together, etc.
          1. Keep ecosystem of diseases within the group
          2. Minimize transmission of diseases
      7. Good nutrition
      8. Clean water
      9. Vaccination
      10. Good observation
      11. Discover causes of disease
    8. Biosecurity
      1. Only farm personnel
      2. Procedures
    9. Animal Disease and Human Well-Being
      1. Emotional Loss after loss of animal
      2. Zoonotic diseases
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Marketing AND Poultry

  1. Vertical Integration- the control of two adjacent stages in the vertical marketing channel from producers to consumers
    1. Contract integration- a firm at one production-processing-distribution stage contracting with a firm at an adjacent stage for specific services and/or products
    2. Ownership integration- the integrating firm OWNS most resources in adjacent production-processing-distribution stages
    3. A company can be either partially or fully vertically integrated
    4. Enhanced coordination enables firms to respond more quickly and correctly to changing customer demands
    5. Motives
      1. Profit opportunities (economic incentive)
        1. In response to problems/inefficiencies in the stages; large transaction costs b.w the stages; new technologies to reduce costs; demand changes
      1. Value-added products
        1. Fresh-packaged product- traditional product sold w/ minimal processing
        2. Value-added- processed to enhance its value
        3. Differentiated product- value-added product w/ a brand name
      2. Brand Marketing
        1. Brand loyalty
    1. Current State
      1. MOST amount of integration in poultry industry
      2. LARGE amount of integration in pork industry and INCREASING
      3. LITTLE integration in beef industry
      4. MORE incentive to integrate vertically in an industry w/ a shorter biological process and where genetic changes can be made more quickly
    2. Poultry Industry
      1. Stages
        1. Hatching and growing
    3. Pork Industry
      1. Stages
        1. Farrowing and finishing
          1. Finishing- growing
    4. Cattle industry
      1. Stages
        1. Cow-calf, stocker/growing, feeding





  1. Poultry
    1. Important commercial species- chicken, turkeys, ducks, geese
    2. Poultry is second largest sector of animal agriculture
    3. TO produce inexpensive sources of protein for human consumption
    4. Structure and Geographic Location of the Industry
      1. Broilers (meat chickens)- highly integrated
      2. Layers (egg chickens)
      3. Turkey- highly integrated, short biological period
    5. Genetics and Breeding
      1. Quantitative traits- egg production potential, egg size, growth rate, confirmation
      2. Heterosis- egg production, egg weight, etc.
    6. Breeds
      1. Chickens
        1. 350 + breeds
        2. ID by class, breed, variety and strain
          1. Class- group of breeds originating in the same geographic area
          2. Breed- specific type of physical features
          3. Varieties- subdivisions of breeds, based on specific qualities
          4. Strains- families or breeding populations that are most nearly alike
        3. Commercial poultry industry is based primarily on strains
        4. Single Comb White Leghorn is the most common
          1. Egg-producers
        5. New Hampshire and White Plymouth Rock are meat-chickens
      2. Turkey
        1. Large White Turkeys dominate the industry
        2. Descendants of the wild turkeys of North and Central America
    7. Nutrition
      1. Complicated due to rapid digestion, high metabolic rates, fast respiration, high body temperatures
      2. Feed is largest cost in production
      3. Optimize growth of meat-producing animals to get them on market faster
    8. Health Management
      1. Biosecurity measures
      2. Poultry production is a concentrated field
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Lactation

  1. Mammary Gland Secretions
    1. Colostrum
      1. First secretion
      2. Higher in protein b/c high antibody/immunoglobulin count
      3. Critical to newborn survival (immunization)
    2. Milk
      1. Produced and secreted by mammary gland
      2. Composition varies by species (biggest difference is fat content)
      3. Structure of mammary glands are similar on the microscopic level in farm animals
  2. Mammary Gland Anatomy
    1. Glands
    2. Teats
    3. Canals
    4. Cow
      1. 4 glands, 4 teats, 1 canal
    5. Mare
      1. 2 glands, 2 teats, 2 canals
    6. Ewe
      1. 2 glands, 2 teats, 1 canal
    7. Sow
      1. 4-9 glands, 4-9 teats, 2 canals
      2. The more the better
  3. Mammary Gland Development, Anatomy and Function
    1. Prenatal period
      1. Structures of mammary gland develop
    2. Puberty
      1. Estrous cycle begins
      2. Progesterone and estradiol stimulate growth of mammary gland
    3. Hormone PROLACTIN important
      1. Close to birth, is secreted
      2. Enables mammals to produce milk
    4. At parturition
      1. Levels of progesterone and estrogen decrease and lactogenesis occurs
    5. Lactogenesis
      1. TWO STAGES
        1. Stage I Lactogenesis
          1. Immunoglobulin uptake occurs and colostrum is formed, much of this prior to birth
        2. Stage II Lactogenesis
          1. Copious milk secretion begins,  milk of normal composition is produced
    6. Mammary Gland Morphology
      1. Alveoli- primary structure
        1. Secretory cells
          1. Absorb nutrients
          2. Transform nutrients from blood
            1. Lactate, fat, and protein
          3. Move milk into lumen of alveoli
            1. (Lumen=inner space of a tubular structure)
        2. Arranged in lobules
        3. Drained by ductwork
    7. Milk Synthesis
      1. 400 vol blood: 1 vol milk
      2. Alveoli surrounded by capillaries
      3. Major components formed in epithelial cells
        1. Epithelial cells/secretory cells/alveolar cells are THE SAME THING!!!!!!!!!!!!
    8. Milk Release/Letdown
      1. CNS stimulus
        1. Can be conditioned
        2. Used in the milk industry
        3. Pressure of fetus on CNS causes this stimulus
      2. Release of oxytocin from posterior pituitary
      3. Contractions of myoepithelial cells- causes milk to be squeezed down to teats
      4. Move milk into duct system
        1. Duct ---> Gland cistern ---> Teat cistern ----> Streak canal -----> Teat sphincter
    9. Lactation Curve
      1. Milk production peaks, then declines
        1. Cows 50-60 days
        2. Peaks quickly, declines gradually
      2. Involution
        1. Decrease weight, volume
        2. Mammary gland must go back to pre-lactation state
      3. Involution reversed w/ next pregnancy
    10. Mastitis
      1. Inflammation of mammary gland
      2. Usually bacterial
        1. Requires antibiotics
        2. Causes wasted milk
      3. Can cause cellular damage to mammary tissue
    11. Milk Composition
      1. Carbohydrates
        1. Lactose
      2. Protein
        1. Casein
        2. Sometimes mother will put protein into milk faster than she can consume it, go to body reserves
      3. Lipids
        1. Milk fat
        2. Variable
      4. Calcium
        1. Milk fever- disease characterized by reduced calcium in blood when calcium demand exceeds calcium intake; results in poor muscle function, weakness, etc.
    12. BST
      1. Bovine somatotropin
      2. Made with rDNA
      3. Partitions nutrients
      4. Increases amount and efficiency of milk production
      5. Must be injected
      6. Species specific
      7. Peptide hormone, used as a growth hormone- increases milk
      8. Not allowed on the market
      9. Protein hormone
      10. Taken from pituitary gland
      11. Able to be produced commercially
      12. It's OK, doesn't make much of a difference to the milk
      13. Increases amount and efficiency of milk production
HORMONES:
Prolactin- enables milk production
Progesterone and Estrogen- decrease leads  

to lactogenesis
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